While the Fed eased its monetary policy on 10 December for the third consecutive FOMC meeting, without making any guarantees about future action, the Bank of England (BoE), the ECB and the Bank of Japan (BoJ) are holding their respective meetings this week. The BoE is expected to cut its key interest rate, the ECB to keep it steady, and the BoJ to raise it. These decisions come amid resilient growth performance despite shocks, which should lead central banks to remain cautious, whether in terms of easing (a residual cut expected for the BoE and none for the ECB) or raising key rates (which should remain a gradual process in Japan). This climate of monetary policy neutrality could be accompanied by greater pressure on long-term sovereign rates than during the period of monetary easing.
September's US employment figures reported the highest payroll growth since April (+119k). However, this fairly positive reading could prove short-lived due to the impact of the government shutdown. For the Fed, these developments add to the uncertainty surrounding its December meeting. We are still expecting a 25bp rate cut, which is now a close call.
There has been remarkably limited interest in Europe at recent international economic and financial gatherings, as if “Europe’s moment”, as ECB President Lagarde dubbed it back in the Spring, has already passed in the eyes of many. Meanwhile, European media outlets have been indulging in negative narratives about political risks, persistent industrial doldrums, and inability to implement reforms that might preserve Europe’s place in a world increasingly dominated by the US and China. And yet, under the radar, a lot of good things have been happening.
Today's deficits are tomorrow's taxes. Therefore, it is logical for households to save rather than spend the public transfers they receive, since these are incurred through debt and will eventually need to be repaid.
Following PwC in June, the ECB presented its own assessment of the costs of a digital euro for banks in the Eurozone. Thanks to extensive cost synergies, their initial investment over the first four years, estimated at EUR 18 billion by PwC, would, according to the ECB, be within a more modest range (between EUR 4 and 5.77 billion). But this amount, which has attracted a lot of attention, is not the only issue at stake, as the recurring cost of replenishing banks’ reserves with the Eurosystem could, in the long term, weigh more heavily on financing conditions.
Responding to tangible signs of tension in the money markets, the Fed announced the end of its QT effective on December 1. In line with its operational framework, the Fed will maintain the size of its balance sheet for some time. Subsequently, to ensure its supply of reserves remains at a sufficiently “ample” level, it will increase it again. However, the Fed should be more cautious.
The Fed eased its monetary policy, with two expected announcements: the end of the central bank's balance sheet reduction process from 1st December; and a second straight cut (-25 bp) in the Fed Funds target, without unanimity, bringing it to +3.75% - +4.0%, due to downside risks in the labour market. We anticipate a further 25bp cut in December, driven by the Fed's bias towards employment and downward revisions to our inflation forecasts for the coming quarters. However, this easing cannot be taken for granted, as J. Powell insisted on keeping options open ahead of the upcoming meeting.
The unexpected element lies in the (highly likely) lack of surprises. The suspense surrounding the outcome of the FOMC meeting on 28-29 October and the ECB meeting on 30 October is, in reality, quite limited: a further 25 bp cut by the Fed and a continuation of the stance for the ECB are expected. In doing so, by narrowing the gap between policy rates and the extent of restriction in US monetary policy, the Fed's stance is aligning more closely with that of the ECB rather than moving away from it. Such a simultaneous lack of suspense for both central banks is uncommon, especially given the overall economic environment, which remains fraught with uncertainty.
Anxious relief, such was the mood in Washington DC last week during the Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), from official and private sector participants alike. Relief that the global economy, and all its regional parts, are doing much better than expected in the Spring despite the US tariff shock. Anxiety that underneath the recent benign economy and markets, tectonic shifts are underway, still in their early stages and poorly understood.
Low in fat, high in fibre, with a large proportion of fruit and vegetables: in terms of health, the virtues of the Mediterranean diet are well-established, but what about in economic terms? For the past decade, the countries of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) forming the Mediterranean ‘arc’ (France, Italy, Spain, Greece) have been following a similar diet, aiming to improve their competitiveness. We take a look at this in our Chart of the week.
Modernity sometimes conceals, under new guises, a return to old precepts: a currency backed 100% by the safest assets, bank deposits guaranteed by tangible reserves, the search for unfailing financial stability. Stablecoins (digital tokens backed by highly safe and liquid assets) are part of this logic. However, in our modern economies, banks only keep a small fraction of deposits in reserve with the Central Bank: this is the principle of "fractional reserves" which gives them the ability to create money (the remaining deposits can be allocated to credit). Beyond the intellectual interest that they attract, stablecoins raise a broader question: if their use were to become widespread, would they not risk making it more difficult to finance the economy?
The Treasury market is one of the pillars of the global financial system. This is due to its size and liquidity, its role in setting borrowing conditions, and the safety that these securities provide.However, the announcement of so-called 'reciprocal' tariffs last April caused turmoil in the market, reminding us that Treasuries had become more sensitive to periods of stress…
What is the impact of the new US tariffs on the customs duties imposed on each country's exports as a whole? Estimates of the "average effective external tariff" show that the shock remains relatively limited for the European Union and the United Kingdom. The framework agreement signed on 27 July between the EU and the US imposes a uniform tariff of 15%, incorporating pre-existing tariffs, and includes a most-favoured-nation (MFN) clause for certain strategic sectors (aeronautics, certain pharmaceutical and chemical products).
After a long decline of real long-term interest rates in advanced economies, the direction has changed in recent years. The prospect of rising private- and public-sector financing needs is raising concern that this movement is not over. Empirical research shows that the long-run dynamics of long-term interest rates are predominantly driven by economic growth, demographic factors (life expectancy and working-age population growth) and financing needs (public debt and pensions). The first two factors are expected to continue exerting downward pressure, whereas upward pressure should come from the huge financing needs. Empirical estimates of the relationship between long-term interest rates and expected borrowing requirements point towards an impact that should be rather limited, all in all
In his much-awaited speech at the annual Jackson Hole central bankers’ symposium, his last as Chair of the Federal Reserve (Fed), Jerome Powell delivered a dovish surprise by opening the door wide to a rate cut at the FOMC’s upcoming meeting, his tone a long way away from his hawkish press conference following the July 30 FOMC meeting, and its hawkish minutes, published just days before the speech. Markets cheered, with both stocks and bonds rallying. Were they right to? Much depends on what caused the shift. Was it relief from inflation developments? Heightened fears of recession? Giving in to political pressure? Chair Powell himself assigned it to a “shifting balance of risks”
The latest monetary tightening in the United States between March 2022 and July 2023 resulted in much larger outflows of portfolio investments by non-residents than during the previous tightening (2016-2018) and the famous taper tantrum of 2013. However, emerging economies are less vulnerable to monetary tightening across the Atlantic than they were a decade ago. On the one hand, the impact of "flight to quality" capital movements by non-resident private investors on risk premiums and local currency bond yields is less significant. Secondly, the level and structure of corporate debt have improved.
Non-performing loan (NPL) ratios of non-financial corporations declined in most EU/EEA banking systems between 2019 and 2024. On average, the ratio fell significantly to 3.38% in Q4 2024 (-2.4 percentage points since Q1 2019). Only the German, Austrian and Luxembourg banking systems recorded an increase, but they started from a level significantly below the EU/EEA average NPL ratio.
Each year, summer is bookended by two landmark central banking conferences where central bankers, academics and a few members of the private financial sector congregate to discuss new research of interest for monetary policy and compare notes on the outlook: in late June, the ECB Forum held in the windy coastal town of Sintra, Portugal; and in late August in the scenic Rocky Mountains valley of Jackson Hole, Wyoming. This year, the Sintra winds were blustery and relentless, but the discussions as calm, focused and insightful as ever, an apt metaphor for central bankers’ condition these days. Some key takeaways.
While the Federal Reserve (Fed) estimates that uncertainty has eased, its conviction that a tariff-related rise in inflation is looming has hardened. The Committee (FOMC) nevertheless appears to be greatly divided on the balance of risks. We maintain our forecast that there will be no rate cuts in 2025 in light of renewed inflationary pressures combined with insufficiently slowing growth.
The investment required to meet the challenges of competitiveness and energy and technology transition in the European Union is huge, and the need for it is imminent (2025-2030). To this must now be added expenditure to strengthen the European Union's military capabilities. To finance this, the EU must of course speed up its roadmap towards a Savings and Investment Union. But given the urgency, it must also take account of its financial ecosystem and rely on its banks. The postponement of the FRTB (Fundamental Review of Trading Book) until 2027 and the European Commission's legislative proposal on securitisation, expected in June, are steps in this direction.
The vulnerability of ASEAN countries to US trade protectionism has increased significantly since 2017. The US has become a key destination for these countries, which export low-intensity tech products (such as textiles and footwear) as well as medium-intensity tech products (mobile phones) and high-intensity tech products (integrated circuits and semiconductors). Vietnam, Thailand and, to a lesser extent, Malaysia have the largest trade surpluses with the US and are therefore the most exposed to a change in US tariff policy.On 2 April, the US government announced an increase in tariffs on ASEAN countries that goes well beyond simple reciprocity
After being left reeling by the unexpected money-market crisis during its first round of quantitative tightening (QT1), the US Federal Reserve (Fed) intends to manage the second (QT2) with the utmost caution. This means reducing its securities portfolio without creating a shortage in central bank money, in view of the liquidity requirements imposed on banks under the Basel 3 framework. As it is unable to estimate the optimum amount of central bank reserves needed to ensure that its monetary policy is properly implemented, the Fed aims to reduce the stock of reserves to a sufficiently "ample" level.If QT2 is ended too early, it would have to activate its liquidity draining tools in order to limit the downwards pressure on short-term market rates
The FOMC kept the target range for the Fed Funds rate at 4.25% - 4.5% at the 18-19 March meeting, as widely expected. Jerome Powell and the committee have started to price in downward risks to economic activity and upward risks to inflation. In the short term, the stability of the dot plots, the downplaying of the long-term tariff related risks and the consistent message of patience are aimed, implicitly, at providing stability in the midst of the current turmoil. In our scenario, the FOMC is expected to cut the rates quite sharply in 2026.
Resilience of external financing conditions overall. The election of Donald Trump to the White House has caused a rally in the US dollar and revived uncertainties about the external financing conditions of emerging countries. The Argentinean peso, the Turkish lira and the South African rand are among the emerging market currencies that recorded the largest depreciations between November 5th, 2024, and February 24th, 2025, losing 6.3%, 5.7% and 5.2% of their value against the US dollar, respectively. Overall, emerging sovereigns should be relatively resilient against a stronger dollar and the risk of increased investor selectivity towards risky assets. However, all of them are not in the same boat
According to an unpublished study conducted within the Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM), if it were to perform its functions in the Eurozone, the US supervisor would be stricter, in terms of risk-weighted capital requirements, with respect to the systemically important banks (G-SIBs) established there, than the single supervisor of the Eurozone. The methodology of the exercise on which this conclusion is based has not been shared. However, it seems very complex to define.
